The discovery of a number of important points signaling pathways in studies of plant response to biotic stress was made possible by the use of mutants of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. The availability of mutants, a knock-out, obtained by chemical mutagenesis or insertion mutants line allows you to focus on a specific issue without the time-consuming research to create their own mutants.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a free radical that has been extensively studied as a substance causing air pollution and the product of metabolism of certain groups of bacteria. Ways to download it, metabolism and harmful effects on plants are well established. It turned out , however, that not only the plants respond to changes in the NO concentration in the environment, but they are in a position to produce it .

Shortage absorbed by plants inorganic phosphate (Pi) in the environment is a phenomenon often encountered . Plants adapt to the conditions of such stress by running a series of mechanisms that increase the download Pi Pi substrate and the mobilization of internal resources. The roots can secrete organic acids to the substrate , acid phosphatase , as well as , if necessary , ribonuclease . Followed by the induction of membrane conveyors Pi and intracellular phosphatases . Many plant adaptations to phosphorus deficiency is preceded by the activation (or repression ) of specific genes .

Proteins belonging to the family caveolin microdomains are major components of cell membranes called kaweolami. Several studies suggest that caveolin-1 inhibits neoplastic transformation. The reduction or absence of expression of caveolin-1 appears to play an important role in the transformation of normal cells into cancer. However, the acquisition of the malignant phenotype of cancer cells seems to be accompanied by increased levels of caveolin-1. This suggests that abnormal expression of caveolin-1 are involved in both tumor formation and progression of cancer.

Membrane prolactin receptor exhibit differences in both interspecies and intra. The occurrence of different variants of the receptor (isoforms) in the organs and tissues of the same individual can adjust the signal transmitted by the hormone. The article presents an overview of the various isoforms of the receptor expression in human and various animal species, and the latest data on the subsequent intracellular processes which occur upon binding of a ligand to a receptor activation step of specific genes.

Te overall body plan of the organism is laid down during oogenesis, and in early embryogenesis. In many types of eggs some specific factors (determinants) are symmetrically deposited within these cells what results thereafter in differential mitoses of embryos. The overall body plan of embryo results from a hierarchy and spatially self-limiting activations of fairly universal classes of genes coding some transcription factors essential for pattern formation in different types of embryos, and from activations of genes controlling the geometry of cleavage.